Reasons to End Social Poisoning on the Internet Essay -- Censorship Cy

Motivations to End Social Poisoning on the Internet [NOTE: Many of the connections the understudy alludes to are no longer active.] While getting the message out of information to the majority, the web at the same time administers social toxic substances. A considerable lot of the beneficiaries are, lamentably, youngsters, and regardless of the American arrangement of free-discourse, this sort of accidental teaching must stop. One of the issues lies in the way that the option to reprimand and the option to show noxious material are one in the equivalent: The Right of Freedom of Speech. Be that as it may, should an undeniable peril to social wellbeing take need over the privileges of a person? Does the individual even have power? In Digital Literacy, Paul Gilster sees that A worldwide trap of correspondences... focuses to a viruslike spread of thoughts (Gilster 27). Should society shield its childhood from this viruslike spread by directing substance on the web? These inquiries are difficult to reply, yet this paper will address them, present a socially destructive abhor webpage, and uncover why society should be freed of the toxin on the web. One of the issues with social thought regarding this matter, however, is that this circumstance is generally obscure to history. In spite of the fact that the force structure of the web has been contrasted with brought together government, decentralized government and social political agitation, Jess Holbrook, in a conversation on November 24, precisely refered to the web as being not normal for whatever else we’ve ever observed. So maybe time ought to be taken to assess the impacts of the web on the nation’s youth, however the country when all is said in done. While the assessment is occurring, the nearness of these social toxic substances on the web must be perceived. The American Nazi ... ... genuine himself, just the previous is promptly accessible to kids. There should be a body which manages the toxic substance on the web and makes it alright for the youngster to surf the net. Not all locales on the web are startling and tricky. However, envision a dark kid, whose precursors endure the slave exchange, going over the American Nazi Party site, and realizing that they are detestable in light of their skin shading. No youngster ought to be presented to this. Works Cited - Bolter, David Jay. Composing Space; The Computer, Hypertext, and the History of Writing. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hillsdale, New Jersey; 1991. - Gilster, Paul. Advanced Literacy. Wiley Computer Publishing. New York. - Hall III, William B. American Nazi Party. 28 November 1998. 5 December 1998 <http://home.earthlink.net/~wbhall/>. - Landow, George P. Hypertext 2.0. Johns Hopkins.

The Erl King Essays - Mythic Humanoids, Erl King, Elf, Ballads

The Erl King ?Sore trembled the dad: he spurr'd thro nature. Catching near his chest his shivering youngster. He arrives at his home in question and in fear. In any case, clasp'd to his chest, the newborn child was dead.? Taken from ?The Erl King,? by Johann Wolgang von Goethe, one can positively detect the spooky and thrilling mind-set. The creator shapes this state of mind by making very much organized characters and a one of a kind discourse. There were just three characters in ?The Erl King?: the kid, his dad, and the Erl King himself. However, every interpretation of a significant job in passing on the ghostly, intense mind-set of this sonnet. The Erl King is really a soul, seen distinctly by his casualties. That reality alone gives the state of mind of the sonnet an extraordinary, baffling inclination. It is seen that not exclusively is the Erl King puzzling, however he is very manipulative. He attempts to lure the kid into going with him, promising him extraordinary fun and bliss, yet once he perceives the kid wouldn't like to leave his dad, he loses control. All persistence is lost and he turns out to be increasingly mighty with the kid. His adjustment in demeanor rapidly consoles the peruser that the Erl King is out to get what he needs no matter what. The little youngster is nevertheless a powerless kid and is an obvious objective for the Erl King due to his young age. His dad feels that he is envisioning up the Er l King, when in certainty he is genuine. The information that the peruser holds adds anticipation to the effectively scary state of mind, in light of the fact that the peruser realizes that Erl King is genuine and that he is attempting to remove the little youngsters life. The dad stays dumbfounded however and you trust the he before long acknowledges what's going on so as to spare his youngster's life. The exchange of the sonnets additionally shows the current temperament. The creator has the kid more than once caution his dad that the Erl King was close, attempting to remove him. In spite of the kid's dread, the dad excuses what the youngster says, after first revealing to him that it was something different through and through. ?O father! O father! presently, presently keep your hold. The Erl King has held onto me-his grip is so cold.? The criticalness in the little youngster's voice tells you what a repulsive thing is occurring. He longs for his dad to acknowledge what was going on, adding direness to the state of mind of the sonnet. As the Erl King is murmuring into the kid's ear, you can just supplicate that he will be protected in the arms of his dad, as they together travel through Germany's Black Forest in the corner of the night. The scary, thrilling temperament all around made in this sonnet is undeniable. The writer has made a disposition with the goal that anybody that peruses the sonnet will get mindful of it. Word after word, Johann surpasses his limits of emotional incongruity, until the last window ornament closes of the little fellow's inauspicious demise. English Essays

How To Plan A Station Rotation

How To Plan A Station Rotation Head of Content and Curriculum, Julie Mason, draws on her experience as a blended and personalized learning coach and walks you through the steps for designing a station rotation model so you can try a new instructional approach this school year. by Julie Mason Trying something new in the classroom is daunting. We tend to teach the way that we were taught. Often this means whole-group instruction. The Gradual Release may feel like the safer route, but is the safer route what students need? If you are noticing that your students aren’t engaged, motivated or taking ownership over their learning, it is time to abandon the safe route and try a new approach. Here’s how to plan a Station Rotation. A Station Rotation will provide you will an instructional framework where you can personalize and differentiate instruction. Your students will experience different learning opportunities to engage with a topic and practice new skills. 1. Choose the topic or skill you plan to teach. Less is more when it comes to facilitating a station rotation, especially when this instructional model is new to you. Keep it simple. Choose a skill like how to identify the main idea or a topic like characterization. 2. Decide how many rotations you will include. Station Rotations usually have three rotations, but ultimately it is up to you to decide what will work best for you and your students. If you have an especially large class, adding a fourth rotation might make sense so there aren’t too many students at each rotation. 3. Write a learning target for each rotation. Instructional time is precious. We never have enough of it. It is important that the learning activities that students are engaged in at each rotation are meaningful, and connected to learning targets. It is also important that students are aware of what the learning are so they are accountable for the work at each rotation. 4. Design learning activities for each rotation. Now that you know what topic or skill you are teaching, and what the learning targets are, you are ready to design what students will be doing at each rotation. It is important to keep in mind how much time you will have for each rotation. For example, if you have a 60 minute class period, you will likely need five minutes to set students up, five minutes to wrap up, and 15 minutes for transitions. This means your station rotations will be fifteen minutes long, and whatever activity you design, students should be able to complete it within that time frame. 5. Strategically group students. It is a best practice to make one of your station rotations a teacher-led station. This gives you the opportunity to work with a small group of students and differentiate your instruction. When you determine groupings for your rotation, plan those groupings based on the instruction you will be giving at your rotation. 6. Create task cards.   The station rotation model doesn’t work well if students at other stations are getting up out of their seats and interrupting you during your teacher-led rotation. To keep this from happening, create a task card for the other two rotations that includes the learning target and also outlines the specific directions for that activity. 7. Decide how you will assess students It is important to hold students accountable for the work that they complete at each rotation. I recommend giving students an Exit Ticket or a small assessment that is one question that you can collect. Looking at this will provide you with helpful data that you can use to determine your next instructional move. 8. Practice! Before you do your first station rotation, walk students through the process. Answer questions that come up, and explain the expectations as well as how students will transition from one station to the other. 9. Get student feedback. Any time you try something new, know that it isn’t going to go smoothly at first. You will likely make changes as you go. It is helpful to thank your students for trying something new, and to give them the opportunity to provide you with feedback on how it is working for them, and what suggestions they have. This creates buy-in and usually increases engagement. 10. Keep going! Don’t give up if at first it seems easier to go back to whole-group instruction rather than continue to try this model. Start small. Maybe use the station rotation model once/week. You can always build from there. Be patient with yourself, and pat yourself on the back for trying something new. We don’t grow in our teaching practice without some discomfort. Do you use Station Rotations in your classroom? Share with us on Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest. Julie Mason is the Head of Content and Curriculum for TeacherVision. She brings expertise in blended and personalized learning, instructional coaching, and curriculum design to the role. She was a middle and high school English teacher for eight years and most recently taught at Dana Hall, an all-girls school in Wellesley, MA. She was a blended and personalized learning instructional coach for K-12 teachers at BetterLesson for two years, and she has presented at The National Principals Conference, ISTE, and ASCD where she shared her expertise  on how instructional coaching builds teacher capacity in K-12 schools. She has extensive experience designing and facilitating professional development for teachers, and she oversees the TeacherVision advisory board.

Capital Punishment Should Be Illegal - 1563 Words

Why Capital Punishment should be illegal The Constitution that governs our laws in America is there to protect all of its people and that include the criminals that are on death row. The death penalty materially violates the constitutional ban against cruel and unusual punishment, the guarantees of due process of law, and of equal protection under the law. This is the reason why capital punishment should be illegal in all fifty states. We believe that the states should not give itself the right to kill any human beings. Capital punishment is an inexcusable denial of civil rights and is inconsistent with the basic values of our democratic system. The death penalty is uncivilized in theory and unfair in practice. The death penalty system in the US is applied in an unfair and unjust manner against people, largely dependent on how much money they have, the skills of their attorneys, race of the victim and where the crime took place. Through litigations, legislation, and encouragement aga inst this vicious and brutal way, we strive to prevent executions and seek to abolishment of capital punishment. We would like to think that the death penalty is more cost effective. It seems like the accused is seen in court for their horrendous crime, sentenced for Capital Punishment, and the next day they face execution. Easy, cheap for us taxpayers. That is far from the truth. The death penalty is a waste of taxpayers’ funds. It boggles the time and energy of courts, prosecuting attorneys,Show MoreRelatedCapital Punishment Should Be Illegal1536 Words   |  7 PagesCapital punishment is the planned taking of a legally convicted persons life. Convicted persons are put to death under certain guidelines; such as age, and the crime that was committed. Certain laws such as the â€Å"Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996† (Supreme Court Rulings), â€Å"New Terrorism Crimes and Penalties† (Death Penalty Statutes), and Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act (D eath Penalty Laws) ensure that only those who are convicted of either acts of terror, homicides, and other lifeRead MoreCapital Punishment Should Be Illegal1613 Words   |  7 Pages Why Capital Punishment should be illegal? The Constitution that governs our laws in America is there to protect all of the people and that includes the criminals that are on death row. The death penalty materially violates the constitutional ban against cruel and unusual punishment, the guarantees of due process of law, and of equal protection under the law. (Bedau, Hugo Adam, The Case Against the Death Penalty) This is the reason why capital punishment should be illegal in all fifty statesRead MoreWhy Capital Punishment Should Be Illegal1282 Words   |  6 PagesCapital Punishment: Why it should be Illegal People may think capital punishment is a good thing that the criminals deserve to die for the horrible crime they have committed. But the truth is that capital punishment is expensive, it violates the U.S Constitution, sentencing someone to jail for life is a worse punishment than being sentenced to death, and the death penalty goes against God and several religious beliefs. There are also innocent people on death row and that the death penalty is notRead MoreShould Capital Punishment Stay Illegal in Canada?636 Words   |  2 PagesThe criminal justice system is innately flawed; since 1900 twenty three innocent people have been executed in the United States that has been documented (citation needed). Which is one of the reasons why I think it should remain illegal in Canada. The sentence doesn’t deter crime, (citation needed) and in some cases it only exasperates the crime which it was supposed to deter. Also, in order to keep an inmate on death row it costs on average nine ty thousand dollars more than keeping an inmate forRead MoreCapital Punishment Should be Abolished883 Words   |  4 Pages Capital punishment is the punishment of death for a crime given by the state. It is used for a variety of crimes such as murder, drug trafficking and treason. Many countries also have the death penalty for sexual crimes such as rape, incest and adultery. The lethal injection, the electric chair, hanging and stoning are all methods of execution used throughout the world. Capital punishment has been around since ancient times; it was used in ancient Rome, and one of the most famous people to be crucifiedRead MoreCapital Punishment Should Be Abolished Essay672 Words   |  3 PagesCapital Punishment Should Be Abolished Capital punishment is a brutal antiquated concept that must be abolished in the name of civilised society. Each year in just America, the land of freedom + the just, 650 people r added 2 the death row + 105 r executed. The death penalty is the harshest form of punishment in the world today. Once the jury has proved a criminal guilty theyRead MoreThe Illegalization Of Capital Punishment1441 Words   |  6 PagesBrianna Pulido Ms. Ingram American Literature 14 April, 2015 The Illegalization of Capital Punishment The Death Penalty, also termed capital punishment, is the legal process in which a person is put to death by the federal or state government based on having committed one of 43 capital crimes, such as first-degree murder, espionage or treason. The death penalty is enforced based upon the idea that law abiding members of society will no longer have to worry about convicted criminals being ableRead MoreCapital Punishment : Lethal Injection824 Words   |  4 PagesCapital Punishment The death penalty is the punishment by lethal injection for committing serious criminal offenses. There are 32 states, including California, which has the death penalty and 18 states where the death penalty is illegal. The jury convicts when the death penalty is going to be used. The New York Times board, 19 expertise journalists, wrote an editorial titled â€Å"The Humane Death Penalty Charade†, discussing that people should be against capital punishment because it is torture andRead More Against Capital Punishment Essay1273 Words   |  6 PagesAgainst Capital Punishment What is the true value of a human life and how can one trade it for another? Isn’t it said repetitively in religion and government that each life should be treated equally? Then, how are we allowed to condemn a person to death? How can we make abortion illegal but capital punishment legal in certain circumstances? No matter what way you look at it capital punishment is murder. If each year there is about 250 people added to death row and 35 executed imagine how manyRead MoreShould The Death Penalty Be Illegal Through The Nation?1623 Words   |  7 Pages Why should the death penalty be illegal through the nation? Murder is wrong we all know and come to the understanding of that. Ask yourself, then, what is capital punishment? Capital punishment is defined as the legally authorized killing of someone as punishment for a crime. The death penalty also known as capital punishment is an issue that have the United States quite divided. While there are many supporters of it, there is also a large amount of disapproval

A Fools Manual to Hip Hop Essay Topics

A Fool's Manual to Hip Hop Essay Topics Hip Hop Essay Topics - the Conspiracy You've got to remember where folks are coming from. Now people are merely tutting. Hip-hop can be positive and negative to every individual differently based on the person it doesn't matter if they're Black, White, Hispanic or Asian. Residents will know where to go to discover the info they require and will feel as though they are a part of something instead of just that guy at the close of the street. Hip Hop Essay Topics - What Is It? 2005 Maturity includes age and experience. The golden age of hip-hop is quite different from the hip-hop that's popular now. Freestyling has gotten mostly obsolete although it's still practiced. Many years ago Minstrel shows are made by racist white folks. To provide a whole detailed history of hip-hop would be an almost endless endeavor, therefore the upcoming few paragraphs will just note some of the most crucial events to occur. It is a kind of academic writ ing assignment made from multiple paragraphs 5 or more that interpret distinctive manners in which minimum a couple subjects are discussed dependent on their differences and similarities. Choosing fantastic and interesting compare and contrast essay topics is a significant step that you ought to take at the very start. In your introduction write two or three sentences proving that there's a superb reason behind comparison. As a college student, you have to give yourself the opportunity to experience all compare and contrast essay ideas. If you're expected to create this work, it's quite important to choose a shiny subject for your writing. Our service will allow you to pay attention to every step because academic experts write the essay examples on hip-hop that you can become here. The best students enjoy writing essays since they're an opportunity to. The Battle Over Hip Hop Essay Topics and How to Win It Gangster rap is differentiable from many other rap music as it uses images in urban life related to violence and crime. Breaking is a type of street dance. Dancing is still a massive area of the culture and it contributes to its general meaning. When you're in high school and you're expected to compose an essay, you may not know. Is that it's from Ashworth University and is made for high school students. Students offer you a distinctive perspective on the function of animals in research. The majority of the students decided to compose the two-page-minimum essay. Board members are going to have place to create announcements and bring up community troubles. On the 1 hand, students of that age are generally not treated as though they were children, teachers attempt to instill as. Hip Hop Essay Topics Secrets Dancing was a kind of expression and a sort of communication. Possessing a well built, functional website delivers a convenience factor that's priceless. The tradition isn't yet widespread. Dynamic, creative and among the best ever! The Key to Successful Hip Hop Essay Topics All of these are free and distinctive. Hip hop became part of contemporary culture during the'80s and over time, it is now a lifestyle for many. New music brought new style particular kinds of closing arose along with the hip hop. Choreographers may concentrate on a specific facet of hip-hop dance or combine different styles of the dance. Both dances draw on particular crucial elements in their various styles. Gangsta rap discusses issues that are culture specific or that handle a particular socialization. Not only must you to study Basic English but you also need to study trends in street speech and slang. The audio genre has optimum chance to construct ethnic bridges and fix ethnic relations due to its diverse audience as it cannot be denied that significant areas of the human ideology have been subjected to the constraint of Hip hop culture. Hip Hop Essay Topics: No Longer a Mystery Wonderful rating and excellent reviews should tell you whatever you will need to understand about this excellent writing service. The duration of your rounds should be sufficient to where your very best quality bars shine but insufficient to compose a book. Free styling can be an enjoyable thing to do whenever you have t ime on your hands or it may be gritty and competitive. Take a look at our on-line guide! What the In-Crowd Won't Tell You About Hip Hop Essay Topics Do whatever you must do to develop your rhythm. It includes the territory. In this moment, there was an upsurge on the quantity of disco music's detractors. Among the most essential positive influences of hip hop music is a whole part of the population developed a means to relate their experience artistically to the world. A Secret Weapon for Hip Hop Essay Topics Songwriters of this song believe that this type of rap might be regarded as as reality rap as they believe it's the reality. Popular music has a broad scope of genres and song ideas behind. These sorts of song have always sparked huge quantity of controversy but that's precisely what the artists and songwriters mean to. This song proved to be a significant influence on a lot of rappers of a later moment.

Structural Functionalist Theory Free Essays

This essay is an attempt to discuss the problems political parties in Zambia are facing by using structural-functionalist and their contributions to liberal democracy. The academic piece shall begin by defining the key terms; those being, structural-functionalist, political parties and liberal democracy. This will be followed by a comprehensive discussion of political parties, focused on, with examples, the Zambian scene. We will write a custom essay sample on Structural Functionalist Theory or any similar topic only for you Order Now Lastly, a brief conclusion based on the discussion will be outlined. â€Å"Functionalism holds that society is a complex system whose various parts work together to produce stability and solidarity† (Giddens 2006:20). It also views society in terms of their functions. Merton (1968), made an important distinctions between manifest and latent functions. The manifest functions of an institution are open, stated, conscious functions. They involve intended, recognized consequences of an aspect of the society such as the university’s role in classifying academic competence and excellence. By contrast, latent functions as unconscious or unintended functions and may reflect hidden purposes of an institution. Structural-functionalist acknowledges that not all parts of the society contribute to its stability all the time. This function refers to an element or process in society that may actually disrupt as social system or lead to a decrease in stability† (Schaefer, 2004: 14). Social life depends on unity and cooperation of a group. The functionalist points out that for society to be stable the different parts of the society must contribute to the stability of society. For instance, the teachers should teach the society to reduce illiteracy, the doctors are making sure that society is healthy, and the police maintain order. Hence society becomes stable since everyone is contributing. According to MacIver (1962), a political party is an association organized in support of some principles or policy which constitutional means it endeavors to make the determinant of government. Not only that, a political party consists of a group of citizens, more or less organized, who act as a political unit and who by the use of their voting power, aim to control the government and carry out their general policies. Similarly, a political party is different from a pressure group, though in some cases the distinction between the two is almost blurred. According to Ball (1976), It may be said that a political party is an organization of numerous people who are openly committed to broad matters of public policy and who want to assume direct responsibility  for their policies by seeking monopolize power or share it with other parties in a position of political power. According to Barker (1951), the panorama of a party system is so fluid that a good number of pressure groups behave like political parties. The cases of fragmentation and polarization of political parties may also be taken note of. It is also possible that some minor political organizations emerge at the time of elections and then they disappear. But the most essential fact remains that three, four even more parties manage to share power. For instance, in Zambia before voting is taken place, there are many parties heard like Movement for Multiparty Development (MMD), United Party for National Development (UPND), Patriot Front (PF) and Heritage Party (HP). But at the end of elections only few will be available to be strong holding oppositions party for example the UPND and MMD. Political parties act as a check against the tendency of absolutism and totalitarianism, ideologies also known by names such as ‘Caesarism’ and ‘Bonapartism’ (CITE). When one party forms government or few form coalition to hold power, other parties play a role of opposition. It not only keeps the government vigilant, it also prevents it from being arbitrary and irresponsible. The leaders of the opposition expose acts of corruption, nepotism, scandals and maladministration in which great men in power are involved. According to Lasswell (1950), the political parties enable the power to hold the government in check. The constant presence of a recognized opposition is an obstacle to despotism, with a programmed fairly within the limits of a possible public opinion, is a bulwark against the tyranny, not only of a despot but also a practical political majority. Significant political developments have occurred in Zambia since the 2001 tripartite elections. After having had two previous elections in 1991 and 1996, the 2001 elections produced a multiparty Parliament for the first time since Zambia’s independence in 1964. These elections seem to signal that the country has moved from a dominant one party political system to a competitive multi-party system According to The Post Newspaper (20/01/2013), opposition parties have serious financial difficulties. And for the new member of the opposition, MMD, this is even worse. The MMD doesn’t know how to operate without a lot of money. They were used to receiving a lot of money from all sorts of characters doing business with government. And the MMD was also parasitic on government institutions for resources. As a result of this, a series of other problems have appeared. Passions about the future of their party rightly fired people up, but wrongly led them to attack and despise their colleagues. The impact of disunity upon members of the party is clear to see. They must in the very near future learn again to display the camaraderie and common purpose that are fundamental to a party’s prospects. If they don’t do so, they stand no chance of being re-elected Also, according to Okar (2005), the ruling parties deliberately employ a â€Å"divide-and rule† tactic to fragment and weaken the opposition parties. Wilson (1956) says, â€Å"The numbers of parties that appeared with the opening to democratization is not a demonstration of increased participation, but rather of fragmentation and therefore weakness of the party systems†. Zambia had more than five political parties, and the dominant party was the movement for multi party democracy (MMD), which ruled the country since 1991 to 2011. According to The Post Newspaper (20/01/2013), opposition political parties like, UPND, that was bound together by regional, cultural and language ties is also now failing to conceal its problems and challenges. The regional, tribal and cultural glue that held them together is also starting to weaken. The hopes that they had of getting into government by 2011 have disappeared. The illusions that they had about their popularity have also dried up. And they can no longer deny the fact that they are a regional political party that has serious problems and challenges becoming national. Their arrogance and pomposity can no longer carry them. The bragging of being this and that has proved unsustainable because it is unrealistic. They can no longer claim to be the most educated, the most knowledgeable when it comes to business and economic matters, the leading entrepreneurs. Parliamentary statistics actually show that UPND has the least educated members of parliament of the three major political parties. And their leader, Hakainde Hichilema, who tried to project himself as a leading entrepreneur, an outstanding economist and a very rich man can no longer lay much claim to these credentials. According to Mwansa,(2012), The leadership of opposition parties suffer from overly rated ambition for power and pride, such that it overcrowds their effective participation on important national matters that affect the citizenry and poor people. They could be more effective by engaging government and the ruling party in debating policy frameworks on how to develop the country. Particularly,  pushing policies that address the needs of poor people such as improving access to clean water and sanitation, quality healthcare, education, rural and agricultural development, and debate macroeconomic policy frameworks required for growth and development, critically contributing to poverty eradication, employment creation and addressing inequalities. According to Soko, (2013), the opposition parties have to find their own political shoes rather than to follow in Sata’s shoes if they are to earn confidence of the electorates on social and developmental programmers’. The strategies the opposition want to use today, of protesting against the Chief Justice, the demand to have a medical board to examine president Sata’s health, the demand to have the constitution changed, among others were Sata’s strategies when he was in the opposition. The opposition just seem to be recycling Sata’s political strategies with the hope of gaining confidence and trust from the Zambians but this will not work for them as they are being viewed as imitators instead of being initiators. Opposition parties are also not given a fair chance by media. Media is always criticizing them and portraying opposition parties in a horrible way. All favor is upon the ruling party which is not supposed to be the case. Lastly, one of the very crucial problems in Africa at present is the unwillingness of the incumbent parties to be opposition parties due to their over-dependence on the benefits available to the ruling parties. Therefore, they are ill-equipped to become the opposition. In conclusion, the ruling party in Zambia should try by all means to incorporate the opposition parties in some development decisions, there also has to be inter-party dialogue over how to move beyond the dominant party situation. Because the ruling party feel comfortable once in power and do not want to give chance to the opposition parties to rule the nation. Media should also be an independent source of information and not favor any party but be like a no man’s land that is not owned by anyone, the opposition parties should be able to broadcast their manifestos to the public. How to cite Structural Functionalist Theory, Papers

Richard III - Tragedy In Isolation Essays - Shakespearean Histories

Richard III - Tragedy in Isolation "The tragedy of Richard III lies in the progressive isolation of its protagonist". Discuss. From the very opening of the play when Richard III enters "solus", the protagonist's isolation is made clear. Richard's isolation progresses as he separates himself from the other characters and breaks the natural bonds between Man and nature through his efforts to gain power. The first scene of the play begins with a soliloquy, which emphasizes Richard's physical isolation as he appears alone as he speaks to the audience. This idea of physical isolation is heightened by his references to his deformity, such as "rudely stamp'd...Cheated of feature by Dissembling Nature, deformed, unfinished. This deformity would be an outward indication to the audience of the disharmony from Nature and viciousness of his spirit. As he hates "the idle pleasures of these days" and speaks of his plots to set one brother against another, Richard seems socially apart from the figures around him, and perhaps regarded as an outsider or ostracized because of his deformity. His separation from is family is emphasized when he says "Dive, thought's down to my soul" when he sees his brother approaching. He is unable to share his thought with his own family as he is plotting against them. Thus, we are given hints of his physical, social and spiritual isolation which is developed throughout the play. But despite these hints, he still refers to himself as part of the House of York, shown in the repeated use of "Our". The concept of Richard's physical isolation is reinforced in his dealings with Anne in Act I scene ii. She calls him "thou lump of foul deformity" and "fouler toad" during their exchange. Despite these insults, she still makes time to talk to Richard, and by the end of their exchange, she has taken his ring and been "woo'd" by him. After Richard has successfully gained the throne, he isolates himself when he asks the crowd to "stand all apart" in Act IV scene ii. And later, when Richard dreams, he is completely alone. Physical isolation in Richard's deformity wins sympathy from the audience as we pity his condition. But Richard uses his deformity as a tool against the other characters, to portray them as victimizing Richard. Thus the sense of tragedy is lessened by his own actions, even though his isolation may become greater as the play progresses. Richard's psychological isolation is conveyed through his lack of conscience in his murderous acts. Nowhere does he feel remorse for his murders, until Act V scene iii when he exclaims "Have mercy Jesu!" and "O coward conscience, how dost thou afflict me!". In this turning point, Richard's division from his own self is made clear from "I and I", and "Is there a murderer here? No. Yes, I am!" He has conflicting views of himself and realizes that "no creature" loves him, not even himself. We also never the "real" mind of Richard, for he is always playing a role, of a loving brother to Clarence, a lover to Anne or a victim to the others. We feel sympathy for Richard as he awakes in a vulnerable position and for the first time acknowledges the evil that he has done. But as he only reveals his feelings of guilt in the last act of the play, we do not see him in internal turmoil and thus the sense of psychological tragedy cannot be built upon. Socially, Richard is isolated from both the upper and lower classes of society. In Act I scene iii, Richard sarcastically calls Elizabeth "sister", and she contemptuously calls him "Brother of Gloucester" making a mockery of familial bonds. Margaret calls him "cacodemon" and "devil", and any unity that the characters have on stage is temporary and superficial. In act III, the citizens are said to be "mum" and "deadly pale", which gives a sense of quiet opposition to Richard's activities. Richard is thus separated from all around him. Temporarily, we see Richard and Buckingham share a kind of bond, as Richard calls him "My other self", "My Oracle" and "My prophet". But they part when Buckingham hesitates to kill the young princes when Richard says "I wish the bastards dead". This is the only time the

Role of a Leader in Change Process

Role of a Leader in Change Process The changing nature of the working environment in different organizations makes it important to have special leaders who are capable of convincing the rest of the workers to adapt to the changes. Individuals who are identified as leaders are expected to possess various qualities that enable them to influence change. A leader must be a person who can be trusted by the rest of the organization in initiating positive changes and ensuring that processes are carried out effectively.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Role of a Leader in Change Process specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The leader of a change process analyzes the events that have been part of the history of an organization by looking at what caused them and their possible effects. By so doing, he is able to assist the organization to avoid repeating past mistakes in the future. Leaders do not only know what happens in the organization but are well informed of t he current trends. They consider the political and social issues that surround the organization and how these factors affect the change process. They have deep understanding of the causes of changes and respond to questions from other members of the organization. They provide solutions to problems facing by the rest of the organization members to make them feel part of the change process (Caeron Green, 2007). Responsibility of Leaders and HR managers in a Change Project Leaders and HR managers have different responsibilities in a change project. The first responsibility they have is that of analyzing the performance required in the change project. They have a responsibility of addressing internal and external players and stakeholders who are likely to affect the change project. Change projects are influenced by stakeholders from within and outside the organization. Some stakeholders may not be willing to support the change project hence they are likely to influence it negatively. I t is therefore the responsibility of leaders and HR managers to have quantitative knowledge of the team effort that will produce the highest level of success (ADB, n.d) The second responsibility of leaders and HR managers in a change project is identifying the priorities required to improve the performance of the teams. It is obvious that the success of the change project cannot be achieved through the effort of the leaders and HR managers alone. They need the efforts of other members of the organization in order for them to work as a team. The leaders and HR managers should have clear knowledge of the procedures being undertaken in the change project for them to have a vision of the direction being taken by the project.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The third responsibility leaders and HR managers have in a change project is the assessment of the ability of part icipants in a change project to change. This responsibility is tied with the responsibility of assessing how the team involved in a change project is able to learn new skills. This is important for leaders and HR managers because a change project basically requires that the team members be able to adapt to new behaviors. Organization Tactics to Ensure Success in Change Process For change to be effectively implemented in an organization, certain tactics are important. The first tactic that is important in implementing change is for the organization to develop a communication plan. It is not possible for an organization to be involved in so much communication during a change initiative. A communication plan is important since it guides the organization throughout the process by communicating critical aspects of the process effectively. The second tactic that can be used by the organization in implementing change process is to predict the reactions of change. Changes are often accompan ied by varied reactions and an organization that predicts the reactions early enough is well prepared to deal with them. The third tactic an organization can use to implement the change process is to understand and make a plan of dealing with resistance. This will ensure that the organization is not caught unaware by resistance accompanying change (Biech, 2007). Reference List ADB. (n.d). Leadership and Change Management. Available from  https://www.adb.org/ . Biech, E. (2007). Tactics of Successful Change Manageent. Retrieved from web Caeron, E., Green, M. (2007). Making Sense of Change Management: A Complete Guide to the Models, Tools and. London: Kogan Page Publishers.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Role of a Leader in Change Process specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More

President Franklin D. Roosevelt Fact Sheet

President Franklin D. Roosevelt Fact Sheet Franklin Delano Roosevelt served as Americas president for over 12 years, longer than any other person before or since. He was in power during the Great Depression and throughout most of World War II. His policies and decisions had and continue to have an enormous impact on America.  For more in depth information, you can also read the   Franklin D Roosevelt Biography. Fast Facts: Franklin D. Roosevelt Birth: January 30, 1882Death: April 12, 1945Known for: Four-term President of the U.S.Term of Office: March 4, 1933-April 12, 1945Number of Terms Elected: 4 Terms; Died during his 4th term.Spouse: Eleanor Roosevelt (His fifth cousin once removed)Famous Quote: The United States Constitution has proved itself the most marvelously elastic compilation of rules of government ever written. Additional Franklin D Roosevelt quotes. Major Events While in Office Twenty-First Amendment - Repeal of Prohibition (1933)New Deal policies including the creation of the CCC, NRA, and TVA (1933-1935)Social Security Act (1935)Court Packing Plan (1937)World War II (1939-1945)Pearl Harbor attacked; US enters World War II (1941)Yalta Conference (1945) Related Franklin D. Roosevelt Resources: These additional resources on Franklin D Roosevelt can provide you with further information about the president and his times. Franklin Roosevelt Biography: Learn more about FDRs life and times with this biography.   Causes of the Great Depression: What actually caused the Great Depression? Here is a list of the top five most commonly agreed upon causes of the Great Depression. Overview of World War II: World War II was the war to end aggression by ruthless dictators. This article provides an overview of the war including the war in Europe, the war in the Pacific, and how people dealt with the war at home. The Manhattan Project Timeline: One day before America entered World War II with the bombing of Pearl Harbor, the Manhattan Project officially began with President Franklin D. Roosevelts approval over the objections of some scientists including Albert Einstein. J. Robert Oppenheimer was the projects scientific director.

Cultural Awareness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cultural Awareness - Essay Example II. Culture and regions of the world: A case for South America. A. A look at the location of South America. B. The physical landscape and prominent features of the region that include the Andes, the amazon forests and the Atacama Desert. III. The expression of culture through history and developments give us a better understanding of the region. A. The military history of South America in itself brings out the nature of the region. B. The key infrastructural developments such as the Panama Canal give us the ancient history and interests of the region. C. Typical activities of the region such as Agriculture tell us about the abundance of rainfall in the areas, tourism also shows us the attractive nature of the region. IV. The people residing in the region and the activities they engage in tell us of the mixed cultures of the area. A. The mixture of ethnic groups tells us of the diversity of the regions culture. B. The different languages spoken by the people prove that culture is both specific to a group and a region. C. The different interests communicate the value of ideologies that are held by different groups. SSG Phippard SSG Johnson ALC Class 709-11 September 18, 2011 The Culture of South America Culture can be defined as that system of beliefs, values, norms, customs, behaviors and artifacts that members of a given society use to interact with the world and one another. It is that combination of thoughts, feelings attitudes, beliefs values and behavior patterns that are shared by racial, ethnic, religious or social groups of people (Urban Schools). The first characteristic of culture is language which is a set of symbols that are used to assign and communicate meaning. Language is both the spoken words and body movements. Language can be formal or informal depending on the environment and the people taking part in the communication process. Different dialects may symbolize different groups of people with different cultures. In non-verbal communication, di fferent cultures have different body languages. For example, there are cultures in which eye contact is seen as disrespectful while in others it signifies honesty. The second element of culture is norms, which are rules that govern behavior in a given society. Norms include taboos and rituals, which are specific to a given group of people or region. Norms are such that what is acceptable by one may be absurd for another. Ignoring these norms makes one unacceptable unpopular or an outcast within a given culture. The third characteristic of culture is values, which are things that members of a particular culture hold in high esteem or aspire to have. Values are not the same they change depending on the situation or the needs of people. Different cultures value different things, for example most Americans generally agree on the following as valuable: democracy, liberty and freedom. A typical African society values children, peace and hard work. The fourth characteristic of culture is b eliefs and ideologies. Beliefs refer to what members of a given culture hold to be true. Ideologies on the other hand refer to a set of beliefs and assumptions that are connected by a common theme. Social institutions or systems associate themselves with ideologies and they serve to make those institutions legitimate. The above two vary within cultures and serve to differentiate them. The fifth characteristic of culture is the attitude towards time. Time orientation is something

LAW FOR BUSINESS Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

LAW FOR BUSINESS Assignment - Essay Example Thus the law on tort has allowed and provided compensation in respect of economic losses that arise directly out of the physical loss, which has not been problematic, but there have been instances when a causal link with the injury and the economic loss could not be made. (Pritchard v. Cobden)1. The problem that lies is in the compensation for losses which are financial or pecuniary in nature, or in other words the loss cannot be in any attributed to or have no connection whatsoever with the personal or physical harm that has been caused to the claimant, this is what has been termed as pure economic loss. These type of losses can include the financial loss or expenditure which resulted from the negligence of the defendant. Therefore for the majority of cases under this head there is an exclusionary rules which bars recovery in these cases and liability is the exception. (Deakin et al 2003) It has been argued that the courts in the instance of personal injury tend to compute loss of f uture earnings which are as difficult to calculate as would be pure economic loss. Furthermore in Canadian National Railway v. ... ment that has been most often cited by the court is that the if the exclusionary rule is not present than the ‘floodgates’ in respect of such liability would open, whereby there would endless claims against the defendants. This has been argued to be a weak argument because extensive liabilities can be found in respect of claims of physical damage for example large scale pollution. (Elliott et al 2007) A better argument in that respect would be the fact that if such an open ended duty of care is imposed in respect of economic loss then there remains the danger of indeterminate liability that is unpredictability in respect of the number of claimants as well as the size of claim. An important example that has been given in this respect is where due to an accident on the highway the motorist who was negligent is held to owe a duty to all those who were stuck in a traffic jam as a result of the accident in respect of their loss of earnings. (J.Stapleton, ‘Duty of Care a nd Economic Loss- A Wider Agenda’)3. Therefore a line of exclusion has been drawn. There has been an argument from Professor Feldthusen that all cases in respect of pure economic loss should not be covered under one heading and therefore a disctinction in this respect should be made for each area. Question 2Â   In the case of Hedley Byrne v. Heller4 the courts did not find any negligence misstatement because of the fact that there had been a disclaimer in the remarks that is the term without responsibility whereby the possibility of a duty of care was extinguished.The position in respect of accountant’s liability can be seen from the decision of House of Lords in Caparo v. Dickman5 whereby for the establishment of a duty of care a reformed three stage test was laid down. The first requirement was

Sleep Disorders and their Effects

Sleep Disorders and their Effects Sleep disorders are medical disorders where the sleep patterns of a person is disrupted. A French scientist, Henri Pieron wrote a book entitled Le problem physiologique du sommeil which first examined sleep from a physiological perspective. Then, Dr. Nathaniel Kleitman also known as Father of American sleep research questioned the regulation of sleep and wake and of circadian rhythms. His work delved into studies of sleep deprivation. Soon after, Kleitman and his student, Dr. Eugene Aserinsky discovered rapid eye movement (REM) during sleep. Dr. Kleitmans research was further extended by another one of his students, Dr. Willaim C. Dement who discovered the connection between REM sleep and dreaming. Sleep disorders effect a persons sleep cycle which can be life disrupting where it disturbs a persons social and psychological state. These disorders vary from more common disorders such as snoring to life threatening disorders such as narcolepsy. There are three broad classifications of sleep disorders; dyssomnias, parasomnias and medical-psychiatric sleep disorders. Dyssomnias are disorders which involve excessive sleepiness and are associated with disturbed sleep. Disorders such as primary insomnia, narcolepsy, obstructive sleep apnea and restless leg syndrome are disorders categorized under dyssomnias. Parasomnias are disorders which involve undesirable physical phenomena which occur during sleep and generally are disorders or arousal, partial arousal, and sleep stage transitions. Disorders such as sleepwalking, night terrors and rhythmic movement disorders are examples of parasomnias. Medical-psychiatric sleep disorders are relations between psychiatric and sleep disorders. Peop le who suffer from depression tend to wake up early and are unable to fall back asleep. This makes their depression worse as the amount of sleep effects ones illness. Likewise, treatment and medication used in psychiatric disorders can cause sleep disorders such as insomnia. There are many types of sleep disorders which vary between the three broad classifications of sleep disorders. Here are a few brief descriptions on some more commonly known sleep disorders. Insomnia is the condition where one finds it difficult to fall asleep whether it may be in the beginning of the night, after waking up in the middle of the night or waking up much earlier in the morning. This will cause lack of sleep which will bring about complaints of non-restorative sleep, sleepiness during the day or fatigue. Sleep apnea is where one has difficulty breathing and sometimes stops breathing over a period of time while sleeping. This condition can range from 10 pauses per hour to 30 pauses per hour. Loud snoring, daytime sleepiness and tiredness are common effects of sleep apnea and most people complain of hypersomnulence and loud snoring to the extent where it can be heard from outside of the house. Narcolepsy is another disorder of excessive sleepiness and hypersomnulence which is associated with cataplexy and other REM phenomena. A person suffering from narcolepsy may just fall asleep instantly without their own awareness. Such a disorder can be very life threatening as falling asleep in certain conditions like behind the wheel can prove to be fatal. Night terrors are severe and frightening partial arousal from sleep. Most people scream and cry while showing fear and anxiety. When experiencing sleep disorders, it is vital to seek medical treatment to cure this condition. Most doctors recommend sleep clinics for diagnosis of the sleep problem. The doctor will study ones history, lifestyle and habits before diagnosing ones condition. Generally, sleep disorders can be treated by self-care regimes such as the Good sleep hygiene regime. This habit advices that one should stick to a regular bedtime schedule, avoid napping during the day, avoid substances which contain caffeine, alcohol and nicotine and also sleeping in a surrounding where it is dark, comfortable and relaxing. Dead man walking Somnambulism Ever heard of horror stories where someone wakes up in the middle of the night, walks up to someone else or something else and acts out or mumbles? More often than not, these cases are mistaken for some supernatural happening. The more skeptical group of people believes that this was caused because that someone was possessed. The punch line for this whole situation is that there is a perfectly reasonable scientific explanation where this whole phenomenon is actually a sleep disorder; Somnambulism. Somnambulism is defined as a series of complex behaviors which arise during slow wave sleep (REM) and result in walking during sleep. This condition is also referred to as sleepwalking. Somnambulism or a more common term, sleepwalking, occurs mostly in children but there are cases which can last to adulthood. When the brain has trouble with the transition from non-REM to REM sleep, sleepwalking occurs. The hypothalamus in the brain controls the sleep-wake cycle of the body. When one sleeps, the hypothalamus blocks a part of the brain so that it does not perform any action and blocks off certain nerves that brings impulses to the brain while sleeping. During REM, our body has a mechanism which keeps us still so we do not act out our dreams. When this feature is missing, people experience REM sleep behavior disorders which include sleepwalking. There are many elements which can lead to sleepwalking. Most of these factors are categorized into three main factors; genetics, medical conditions and environmental factors. Genetics plays a vital role in ones sleepwalking condition. When a person is diagnosed with sleepwalking, it is a possibility that they have inherited that specific gene. If there is a family member with that abnormality, it is ten times the chances of that person inheriting the sleepwalking disorder. Identical twins also have a higher chance in becoming sleepwalkers. There are also many medical conditions which lead to sleep walking. Conditions such as fevers which directly impact the nervous system, nighttime asthma, obstructive sleep apnea, night time seizures and psychiatric disorders have a great impact towards sleepwalking. Adults with psychiatric disorders often consume drugs like anti-seizure medicines and stimulants which cause sleepwalking. A persons environmental surroundings can also induce sleepwalk ing. When someone experiences hormonal changes induced by pregnancy, menstruation or puberty it can lead to sleepwalking. Also, sleep deprivation, alcohol intoxication and unusual sleep schedules bring about the said disorder. So, what actually happens when one sleepwalks? In some cases, the sleepwalker sits up from their laid position. Some cases have the sleepwalkers run from their beds. The sleepwalkers actions vary depending on the type of dream. If someone is dreaming about being chased by a hungry wild animal, that someone is more likely to run as fast as they can. One can only imagine the outcome when a sleepwalker is dreaming about using the bathroom. While sleepwalking, the sleepwalkers eyes can be open or closed and appear glassy. Even though their eyes are open, their vision is not permitted as they are still in a state of sleep. Most people stereotype sleepwalkers to have their hands propelled out as if they were zombies and their eyes rolled back. In actual fact, these sleepwalkers perform daily life tasks. Some may cook meals and some have ended up behind the car wheel. Lucky for them, they couldnt find the car keys. It is not advised to awaken a sleepwalker as it is possible for them to go i nto a state of shock. After all, they are not controlling their actions at this moment in time. As soon as the sleepwalker wakes up from their dream, they experience amnesia where they cannot recall what they did previously when sleepwalking. The danger of sleepwalking can not only affect the sleepwalker but also the people around them. There have been over 20 cases where people have performed murders while sleepwalking. Also, many sexual assault and rape cases have been related to sleep walking. It is hard to justify these cases as most of it is performed when the person is not conscious of their actions. Sleepwalking is a serious sleep disorder and has to be resolved as soon as its diagnosed. Of course the best solution is prevention. In order to prevent sleepwalking, one should get adequate sleep. Never allow yourself to experience sleep debt. One should also cultivate a stress-less lifestyle. Meditation and relaxation exercises help provide a tranquil and serene sense of thought. However, if one has already succumbed to the sleepwalking disorder, there are many solutions to resolve this problem. Medication is a common treatment for sleepwalking. Medications are necessary if sleepwalker is at risk of injury, causes disruption to the family household, and other treatment option are not effective. Other treatment options are non-drug based and are preferred treatment for a long term. Anticipatory awakenings are when the patient is woken up approximately 15-20 minutes before the anticipated attack and is kept awake through the time of the attack. Relaxation and mental imagery are more natural techniques and can be very effective if it is carried out by an experienced behavioral therapist or hypnotist. Hypnosis also helps reduce sleepwalking. In order to protect the sleepwalker from the risk of injury, a safe environment should be preserved where it is free from harmful objects. Also, the doors and windows should be locked and an alarm bell should be installed at the door of the sleepwalkers bedroom. This is to alarm the family when the sleepwalker is on the move. Conclusion Sleep disorders are a medical condition where the sleep pattern is disrupted. Most disorders occur when there is a dysfunction with the REM sleep. Sleep disorders are categorized into three broad classifications which are dyssomnias, parasomnias and medical-psychiatric sleep disorders. Dyssomnias disorders involve excessive sleep, parasomnias involve undesirable physical phenomena and medical-psychiatric sleep is correlated where the psychiatric conditions of a person effects the sleep conditions and vice versa. Most sleep disorders can affect ones daily life whether it may be the person experiencing the sleep disorder or the person around them. Sleep disorders vary from mild conditions such as bruxism to dangerous, life-threatening conditions such as sleep apnea. It is vital for people who suffer from sleep disorders to seek medical help in order to contain this condition from getting worse whether it may be from medication or just adapting a healthy lifestyle. Somnambulism (sleepwa lking) is when a person gets up and walks about during the deep sleep stages. A person experiencing sleepwalking is acting out a dream or a vision in their heads. The sleepwalker does not realize they are sleepwalking and after each episode they experience a mild case of amnesia. The sleepwalking syndrome is usually caused by three main factors which are genetics, medical conditions and environmental surroundings. A sleepwalker experiences episodes where they wake up in the most unlikely places and in some cases end up in embarrassing situations. When sleepwalking, one does not realize their actions and are in no control of it. Some sleepwalking cases can be very dangerous as they attempt things which are fatal when the conscious mind is not at play. In order to end accidents by sleepwalking, this disorder needs to be treated. Methods such as medication, anticipation awakenings, relaxation and mental imagery are effective when treating sleepwalking.

Phonetics as a Branch of Linguistics

GLOSSARY Academic style – also scientific style, a style of speech used in lectures, scientific discussions, conferences, etc Accent – 1) type of pronunciation, that is the way sounds, stress, rhythm and intonation are used in the given language community. 2) see stress. Accommodation – modifications of consonants under the influence of the neighbouring vowels and vice versa. Acoustic Phonetics – science which deals with the physical property of sounds.Affricates – noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air stream escapes from the mouth with some friction. Allophones – variants of a phoneme, usually occur in different positions in the word, cannot contrast with each other and are not used to differentiate the meaning. Alveolar – sounds produced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth (alveolar) ridge. American English – the national variant of the English language spoke n in the USA.Amplitude – the distance to which the air particles are displaced from their position of rest by the application of some external force. Apical – sounds articulated with the tip of the tongue. Applied Phonetics – a branch of phonetics used for practical purposes in speech therapy and logopedia. Articulatory Phonetics – also Physiological Phonetics, a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of speech sounds as regards their production by the human speech organs. Ascending head – a type of head in which syllables form an ascending sequence.Assimilation – The modification of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in the speech chain. Auditory Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the way our auditory mechanism works to process speech information, also Perceptual Phonetics. Back vowels – vowels formed with the tongue in the back part of the mouth. Back-advanced vowels – vowels formed with the tongue in the back-advanced position in the mouth. Back-lingual – see velar. BBC English – the accent used on BBC radio and TV channels, is considered a standard English spoken in Great Britain, also Received Pronunciation.Bilabial – sounds produced when both lips are active. Bilingualism – the command of 2 different languages by a person. British English – the national variant of the English language spoken in Great Britain. Broad transcription – also phonemic transcription, provides special symbols for all the phonemes of a language. Broad variations – a subclass of the vertical positions of the tongue which in this case is placed slightly lower in the mouth cavity. Cacuminal – sounds articulated with the tip of the tongue curled back.Central vowels – sounds articulated when the front part of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate. Checked vowels – short stressed vowels fol lowed by strong voiceless consonants. Checkness – a vowel property which depends on the character of articulatory transition from a vowel to a consonant Close vowels – sounds articulated when the tongue is raised high towards the hard palate. Closed syllable – a syllable which ends in a consonant. Coda – one or more phonemes that follow the syllabic phoneme.Communicative centre – a word or a group of words which conveys the most important point of communication in the sentence or the utterance. Commutation test – the procedure of substituting a sound for another sound in the same phonetic environment with the aim of establishing the phonemic system of a language Comparative Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which studies the correlation between the phonetic systems of two or more languages Consonant – a sound made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth or nasal cavities.Conversational style – also convers ational style, a style of speech used in everyday communication. Declamatory style – a style of speech used in stage speech, recitations, etc. Delimitation – segmentation of speech into phrases and intonation groups. Dental – sounds produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth Descending head – a type of head in which syllables form an descending sequence Descriptive Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies the phonetic structure of one language only in its static form, synchronically.Devoicing – a process that results in a voiced consonant being pronounced as voiceless. Dialect – a variety of language which differs from others in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Diglossia – a phenomenon when an individual may speak RP in one situation a native local accent in other situations. Dynamic stress – force accent based mainly on the expiratory effect. Diphthong – a vowel which consists of tw o elements, strong (a nucleus) and weak – (a glide).Diphthongoid – a vowel articulated when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak, in this case the articulated vowel is not pure, but it still consists of one element. Direct methods – methods of phonetic investigation which consist in observing the movements and positions of one's own or other people's organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analysing one's own kinaesthetic sensations during the articulation of speech sounds and in comparing them with the resultant auditory impressions. Discourse – a larger context in which sentences occur.Dorsal – sounds produced when the blade of the tongue is active. Duration – the quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same patterns of vibration are maintained. Elision – complete loss of sounds, both vowels and consonants, often observed in spoken English. Enclitic – unstressed wo rds or syllables which refer to the preceding stressed word or syllable. Estuary English – a variety of modified regional speech, a mixture of non-regional and local south-eastern English pronunciation and intonation. Estuary English speakers place themselves â€Å"between Cockney and the Queen†.Experimental Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which deals with research work carried out with the help of different technical devices for measurements and for instrumental analysis Extra-linguistic factors – non-linguistic factors, such as the purpose of utterance, participants and setting or scene of speaking, which result in phonostylistic varieties. Familiar style – see conversational style. Forelingual – sounds articulated with the front part of the tongue Fortis consonants – voiceless consonants pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effect.Free variants – variants of a single phoneme which occur in a langua ge but the speakers are inconsistent in the way they use them, as for example in the case of the Russian words â€Å"/ †. Free vowel – a weak vowel followed by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by no consonant at all. Frequency – a number of vibrations per second. Fricative – constrictive noise consonants articulated when the air escapes with friction through the narrowing formed by speech organs. Front vowels – vowels in the production of which the body of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity and the front of the tongue is raised.Front-retracted vowels – vowels produced with the body of the tongue in the front but retracted position in the mouth cavity. Functional Phonetics – see phonology. General American – the national standard of the English language spoken in the USA. General Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies all the sound-producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the wa ys they are used for purposes of human communication by means of language. Glide – the second weak element of English diphthongs. Glottal – sounds articulated in the glottis.Glottal stop – a sound heard when the glottis opens suddenly and produces an explosion resembling a short cough. Glottis – the opening between the vocal cords, through which the air passes. Hard palate – the roof of the mouth. Head – part of the intonation group, contains stressed syllables preceding the nucleus with the intervening unstressed syllables. Hesitation pause – silent or filled pause mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain time to think over what to say next. Historical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics that studies the phonetic structure of a language in its historical development, diachronically.Idiolect – individual speech of members of the same language community Informational style – a style of speech used by radio and telev ision announcers conveying information or in various official situations. Instrumental methods – methods of phonetic investigation based upon registering or computing machines and technical devices Intensity – a property of a sound produced by the amplitude of vibrations. Interdental – sounds articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth. International Phonetic Alphabet – a set of symbols adopted by theInternational Phonetic Association as a universal system for the transcription of speech sounds. Intonation – pitch (or melody) variations used to convey meaning. See also prosody Intonation group – an actualized syntagm. Intonation pattern – pitch movements together with loudness and the tempo of speech extending over an intonation group. Intonation style – a complex of interrelated intonational means which is used in a social situation and serves a definite aim of communication. Intonogramme – the pi cture of the sound wave of a syllable, word or an utterance received with the help of intonograph.Intonograph – a technical device which gives pictures of sound waves of syllables, words and utterances. Kinetic – relating to motion. Labial – sounds articulated by the lips. Labiodental – sounds articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth Laryngoscope – a special device which helps to observe the vocal cords, epiglottis and the glottis. Larynx – part of the vocal tract containing the vocal cords. Lateral – sounds produced when the sides of the tongue are active. Lateral plosion – sudden release of air which escapes along the sides of the tongue.Lax – historically short vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of speech organs is weak. Lenis consonants – voiced consonants pronounced with weak muscular tension. Lip rounding – a position of the lips when their corners are broug ht toward one another so that the mouth opening is reduced. Loudness – the intensity of sound is produced by the amplitude of vibrations. Manner of articulation – one of the principles of consonant classifications which is connected with the type of obstruction to the air stream.Maximum onsets principle – Medio-lingual – sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate Minimal pair – a pair of words or morphemes which are differentiated by one sound only in the same position. Modifications of sounds – positional and combinatory changes of sounds in connected speech. Monophthong – a vowel articulated when the tongue position is stable, in this case the articulated vowel is pure, it consists of one element. Mouth cavity – the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx. Narrow transcription also phonetic transcription, provides special symbols for all the allophones of the same phoneme Narrow variatio ns – a subclass of the vertical positions of the tongue which in this case is raised slightly higher in the mouth cavity Nasal consonants – sounds articulated when the soft palate is lowered and the air stream goes out through the nose. Nasal Cavity – the cavity inside the nose which is separated from the mouth cavity with the soft palate and the uvula. Nasal plosion – sudden release of air by lowering the soft palate so that the air escapes through the nose.National variants – the language of a nation, the standard of its form, the language of its nation’s literature. Neutral vowel – a mid central vowel, also schwa. Neutralisation – the loss of qualitative and quantitative characteristics of vowels in unstressed positions. Noise consonants – consonants in the production of which noise prevails over voice, the air stream passes through a narrowing and produces audible friction (compare with sonorants). Normative Phonetic s – see Practical Phonetics. Notation – another term for transcription.Nuclear tone – a significant change of pitch direction on the last strongly accented syllable in an intonation pattern. In general nuclear tones may be falling, rising and level or a combination of these movements. Nucleus – 1) the last strongly accented syllable in an intonation pattern; 2) the most prominent part of a diphthong; 3) the centre of a syllable, usually a vowel. Obstructer mechanism – a group of speech organs which form obstructions during articulation of consonants, it includes tongue, lips, hard and soft palate and teeth.Occlusive – sounds produced when a complete obstruction to the air stream is formed. Onset – sounds that precede the nucleus of a syllable. Open syllable – a syllable which ends in a vowel. Open vowels – vowels produced when the tongue is in the low part of the mouth cavity. Opposition – see phonetic oppositions . Oral consonants – sounds articulated when the soft palate is raised and the air stream goes out through the mouth. Organs of speech – the human organs which together with biological functions take part in sound production.Palatal – sounds produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate. Palatalisation – softening of consonants due to the raised position of the middle part of the tongue towards the hard palate. Palato-alveolar – sounds made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation (two foci). Paralinguistics – a branch of linguistics which is concerned with non-verbal means of communication. Perceptual Phonetics – see Auditory Phonetics.Pharynx – the part of the throat which connects the larynx to the upper part of the vocal tract. Phonation – voicing, the vibration of the vocal cords. Phone – a sound realised in speech and which bears some individual, stylistic and social characteristics of the speaker. Phoneme – the smallest further indivisible language unit that exists in the speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word.Phonemic transcription – see broad transcription. Phonetic mistakes – pronunciation mistakes made when an allophone of some phoneme is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme. Phonetic oppositions – comparison of sounds, words and morphemes in order to single out their minimal distinctive features. Phonetic transcription – see narrow transcription. Phonetics – a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized. Phonetics analyses the nature of thes e sounds, their combinations and their functions in relation to the meaning.Phonological analysis – analysis whose aim is to determine which differences of sounds are phonemic/non-phonemic and to find the inventory of the phonemes of this or that language Phonological mistakes – pronunciation mistakes made when an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme; in this case the meaning of the word is affected. Phonology – also Functional Phonetics, a branch of phonetics that is concerned with the social functions of different phonetic phenomena.Phonosemantics – a branch of psycholinguistics that studies the relations between the sound structure of a word and its meaning. Phonostylistics – a branch of phonetics that studies the way phonetic means of the language function in various oral realizations of the language. Phonotactics – the study of the possible phoneme combinations of a language. Physiological Phonet ics – see Articulatory Phonetics. Pitch – the auditory characteristic of a sound, it corresponds to the fundamental frequency (the rate of vibrations of the vocal cords). Pitch level – a particular height of pitch.Pitch range – the interval between two pitch levels or two differently pitched syllables or parts of a syllable. Place of articulation – the place in the vocal tract where the air stream is obstructed. Plosives – consonants produced when the air stream is completely stopped for a short time, also stops. Post-alveolar – sounds articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge Power mechanism – a group of speech organs which supplies energy for sound production, it includes lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi.Practical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which teaches how to pronounce sounds correctly and what intonation to use to convey this or that meaning or emotion. It is called Normative Phonetics because teaches the â€Å"norm† of English pronunciation. Pragmalinguistics – a branch of linguistics that studies what linguistic means and ways of influence on a hearer to choose in order to bring about certain effects in the process of communication. Pragmaphonetics – a branch of Pragmalinguistics whose domain is to analyse the functioning and speech effects of the sound system of a language.Pre-head – the unstressed syllables which precede the first stressed syllable of the head. Primary stress – the strongest stress compared with the other stresses in a word. Principal allophone – allophones which do not undergo any significant changes in the chain of speech. Proclitic – unstressed words or syllables which refer to the following stressed word or syllable Prosody – a complex unity formed by significant variations of pitch, tempo, loudness and timbre. Psycholinguistics – a branch of ling uistics which covers an extremely broad rea, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such problems as acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech perception, second-language acquisition and so on. Publicistic style – a style of speech used in public discussions on political, judicial or economic topics, sermons, parliamentary debates Qualitative – connected with the spectral characteristics of a sound. Quantitative – referring to the length of a sound. Received Pronunciation (RP) – the national standard of the English language spoken in Great Britain. Reduced vowel – a weakened vowel.Reduction – weakening (either qualitative or quantitative) of vowels in unstressed positions. Resonator mechanism – a group of speech organs which can change their shape and volume, thus forming the spectral component of the sound, it includes nasal and mouth cavities. Rhyme Rhythm – recurrence of stressed syl lables at more or less equal intervals of time in speech. Rhythmic group – a speech segment which contains a stressed syllable and a number of unstressed ones. The most frequent type of an English rhythmic group includes 2-4 syllables, one of which is stressed.Rounded – a sound articulated with added lip rounding. Schwa – see neutral vowel. Scientific style – see academic style. Secondary allophones – allophones which undergo some predictable changes in different phonetic context. Secondary stress – a less strong stress than the primary one, usually precedes the primary stress in a word. Segmental Phonetics – a division of phonetics which is concerned with individual sounds (â€Å"segments† of speech) Segmentation – division of speech into phrases and intonation groups. Semantic centre – see communicative centre.Sentence stress – the greater degree of prominence given to certain words in an utterance. Socio linguistics – a branch of linguistics that studies the way the language interacts with society. Soft palate – the back, soft part of the hard palate. Sonorants – consonants in the production of which noise prevails over voice, the air stream passes through a narrowing and produces audible friction (compare with sonorants). Sonority – a degree of loudness relative to that of other sounds with the same length, stress and pitch.Special Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of the phonetic structure of one language only. Spectrogram – a picture of the spectrum of sounds, their frequency, intensity and time. Spectrograph – a device which carries out the spectral analysis of speech. Stops – see plosives Stress – a greater degree of prominence which is caused by loudness, pitch, the length of a syllable and the vowel quality. Stress-timed languages – in these languages stressed syllables ten d to occur at relatively regular intervals irrespectively of the number of unstressed syllables separating them.Strong vowel – the full form of a vowel in the stressed position. Stylistic modifications – sound changes which happen under the influence of extra-linguistics factors. Subsidiary allophone – see secondary allophone. Suprasegmental Phonetics – a division of phonetics whose domain is larger units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts Syllable – a sound sequence, consisting of a centre which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this centre there will be greater obstruction to airflow and less loud sound.Syllable-timed languages – in these languages all syllables, whether stressed or unstressed, tend to occur at regular time-intervals and the time between stressed syllables will be shorter or longer depending on the number of unstressed syllables separating th em. Syntagm – a group of words which is semantically and syntactically complete. Tail – any syllables between the nucleus and the end of the utterance. Tamber – the same as timbre. Tempo – the rate of the utterance and pausation. Tense – historically long vowels in the articulation of which muscular tension of speech organs is great.Terminal tone – the nucleus and the tail of the utterance. Tertiary stress – a less strong stress than the primary one, usually follows the primary stress in a word. Theoretical Phonetics – a branch of phonetics which is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. It discusses the problems of phonetics in academic terms and gives a scientific approach to the phonetic theory. Timbre – voice quality. Tone languages – the meaning of words in these languages depends on the variations of voice pitch in relation to neighbouring syllables.Tongue – the most movable and flexible speech organ. Transcription – the system of symbols to represent speech in written form. Unstressed – bearing no stress. Utterance – a spoken sentence or a phrase. Uvula – the end of the soft palate. Velar – consonants produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate Vibrator mechanism – a group of speech organs which vibrate while the air passes through, thus producing voice, it includes larynx, vocal cords, glottis. Vocal cords – two soft folds in the larynx which can be brought together and apart, thus producing voice.Voice quality – timbre. Voiced consonants – sounds produced when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate. Voiceless consonants – sounds produced when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate. Vowel – a sound in the production of which no obstructions are made. Weak form – the unstressed form of a sound or a word. Windpipe – trachea or air passage. Word stress – a greater degree of prominence on one of the syllables in a word. I. PHONETICS AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS. BRANCHES OF PHONETICS. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION 1. 1 IntroductionKnowledge of the structure of sound system and its articulatory and acoustic characteristics is very important in teaching and learning foreign languages. The teacher has to know the starting point from which to begin teaching; he must be able to point out the differences between the pupil’s mother tongue and the language to be learnt. He should be able to choose adequate training exercises. That’s why it is vital to know, at least, the basic principles of this science. The term â€Å"phonetics† comes from the Greek words meaning â€Å"sound or matters pertaining to voice†. What does phonetics study?It is concerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized (that is the oral aspect of speech communication). However phon etics takes the content level into consideration too. Only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech and phonetics is concerned only with such sounds which are carriers of organized information of a language. Phonetics analyses the nature of these sounds, their combinations and their functions in relation to the meaning. No kind of linguistic study can be carried out without constant consideration of the material on the expression level.Consequently, phonetics is important in the study of a language. An understanding of it is a basis for any adequate understanding of the structure or functioning of a language. It follows from this that phonetics is a basic branch – many would say the most fundamental branch of linguistics, because it gives a language a definite form. The vocabulary and grammar of a language can function only when the language has a phonetic form. So grammar and vocabulary depend on phonetics, they cannot exist outside of phonetics, because all lexical and grammar phenomena are expressed phonetically.Neither linguistic theory nor linguistic description can do without phonetics and is complete without it. Phonetics, being a branch of linguistics, occupies a peculiar position. On the one hand it serves as a means of expressing grammatical and lexical phenomena. On the other hand it has laws of its own which are independent of grammar and vocabulary. Besides it is closely connected with a number of other sciences, such as physics, biology, physiology, psychology etc. The more phonetics develops the more various branches of science become involved in the field of phonetic investigation.Phonetics is not a new science. It was known to the ancient Greeks and to the ancient Hindus. The scientists of that time were concerned with speech sounds only. It may be said that the orthography of all written languages which use alphabets developed in the course of a very detailed phonetic analysis. Nevertheless, phonetics as an independent science began to develop only in the 19th century, before that it used to be a part of grammar. There has been considerable progress and growth in the 20th century. New concepts, methods of investigation, new theories and schools have been developed.Not only has the sphere of investigation in phonetics become wider, but several new branches of phonetics have also arisen. So our further point will be made on the branches and divisions of phonetics. 1. 2 Branches and Divisions of Phonetics Everyone who starts learning a foreign language first of all is introduced into practical or normative phonetics. It studies the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning. It teaches how to pronounce sounds correctly and what intonation to use to convey this or that meaning or emotion. It is called normative because we are to teach the â€Å"norm† of English pronunciation.Theoretical phonetics is mainly concerned with the functioning of phonetic units in the language. It discusses t he problems of phonetics in academic terms and gives a scientific approach to the phonetic theory. Other two important branches of phonetics are special and general phonetics. Special phonetics may be subdivided into descriptive and historical. Special descriptive phonetics is concerned with the study of the phonetic structure of one language only in its static form, synchronically and the domain of special historical phonetics is the phonetic structure of a language in its historical development, diachronically.Historical phonetics is part of the history of a language. Its aim is to trace and establish the successive changes in the phonetic system of a given language at different stages of its historical development. It is very important for the study of the modern phonetic system because without a historical approach it is impossible to understand how this modern phonetic system has developed and what further changes it is likely to undergo.General phonetics studies all the sound- producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the ways they are used for purposes of human communication by means of language, it finds out what types of speech sounds exist in various languages of the world, how they are produced and what role they play in forming and expressing thoughts; it also determines the nature, types and role of other phonetic means, such as word stress and intonation.General phonetics is based on the material which the special phonetics of a great number of languages provides; it also uses data of other sciences: physics, biology, psychology, speech pathology, etc. So it makes a number of general conclusions concerning the complex nature of speech sounds, analyses phonetic phenomena from different points of view and formulates phonetic theories. On the one hand general phonetics is based on the data of special phonetics; on the other hand it provides valuable theoretical material which enables us to understand and to interpret correctly differe nt phonetic phenomena of concrete languages.Another important division is into phonology and phonetics. According to the conception of the Prague Linguistic School phonetics and phonology are two independent branches of science, phonetics is a biological science which is concerned with the physical and physiological characteristics of speech sounds, and phonology is a linguistic science which is concerned with the social functions of different phonetic phenomena. Another term for this branch is functional phonetics. The father of Phonology is Prince Nicholas Trubetskoi.His work â€Å"Fundementals of Phonology† separates phonetics and phonology, saying that they are not related and that phonetics is not part of linguistics, but a biological science that deals only with the physiological aspect of speech sounds. Nevertheless it doesn't seem logical to separate function from phonetic forms, thus excluding phonetics from the linguistic sciences. So nowadays most phoneticians cons ider both phonetics and phonology part of linguistics. Phonetics itself is subdivided into 3 sub branches, each dealing with special aspects of sounds, their production by a speaker and perception by a listener.Phonetic processing starts on a neurophonetic level, in the brain of a speaker, where the formation of the concept takes place. The human brain controls the behaviour of the articulatory (or speech) organs and makes them move in a particular way. The branch of phonetics which is concerned with the study of speech sounds as regards their production by the human speech organs is called articulatory (physiological) phonetics. In other words it deals with the way human organs join to produce sounds.Articulatory basis of a language is a set of articulation tendencies characteristic for a particular language community, so articulatory gesturing is culturally specific and not universal. Different articulations produce different acoustic effects, or different speech sounds. Consequen tly, speech sounds have a second aspect, a physical or, more exactly, an acoustic one, which constitutes the domain of acoustic phonetics. Acoustic phonetics involves knowledge of physics as it deals with the physical property of sounds. Any sound is a pressure disturbance transmitted through an elastic medium.When articulatory gesturing starts it causes disturbance (a sound wave) in the medium, which is transmitted from one particle of the medium to another and is reproduced as a sound wave travels from the source to the listener. Perceptual or auditory phonetics is concerned with the way our auditory mechanism works to process speech information. There is a boundary line between reception (which doesn't involve understanding) and perception (which involves decoding and understanding). Phonetic perception is a product of sensation and interpretation of speech elements which take place in a human brain.Phonetics is also divided into two major components: segmental phonetics, which i s concerned with individual sounds (â€Å"segments† of speech) and suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is larger units of connected speech: syllables, words, phrases and texts. There are a number of other divisions of phonetics. We may speak about comparative phonetics whose aims are to study the correlation between the phonetic systems of two or more languages and find out the correspondences between speech sounds and intonation structures.Its data are extremely useful in teaching and learning a foreign language as they show differences and similarities of the phonetic systems of two or more languages and predict possible difficulties for the learners. It should be mentioned that the most difficult phonetic phenomena are those absent in the mother tongue. For example, the sounds [? -? ] cause a lot of difficulties for the Russian students of English, as there are no sounds with similar articulations in the Russian language.On the other hand the most stable and persistent p ronunciation mistakes are made in those phenomena which are similar in the two languages but not exactly the same. For example, falling intonation. In English it goes to the very bottom of the voice, while in Russian it is not so steep and it does not reach the same low note as in English. The data of applied phonetics are essential for practical purposes in speech therapy and logopedia. It helps to correct speech defects and to teach deaf-mutes (or people who do not speak as a result of an accident or some disease) to speak.Experimental phonetics deals with research work which is carried out with the help of different technical devices, machines for measurements and for instrumental analysis. Phonetics as a whole and all of its branches have not come into being all at once: they developed gradually, and their development was closely connected with and determined by the development of other branches of linguistics and other sciences. 1. 3. Phonetics and Social Sciences So our furthe r point should be made in connection with the relationship between phonetics and social sciences. Language is not an isolated phenomenon; it is a part of society.No branch of linguistics can be studied without taking into consideration at least the study of other aspects of society. In the past two decades we have seen the development of quite distinct interdisciplinary subjects, such as sociolinguistics (and sociophonetics correspondingly), psycholinguistics, mathematical linguistics and others. As their titles suggest, they are studied from two points of view and thus require knowledge of both. Sociophonetics studies the ways in which pronunciation functions in society. It is interested in the ways in which phonetic structures vary in response to different social functions.Society here is used in its broadest sense, it includes such phenomena as nationality, regional and social groups, age, gender, different situations of speaking – talking to equals, superiors, on the â₠¬Å"job†, when we are trying to persuade, inform, agree and so on. The aim of sociophonetics is to correlate phonetic variations with situational factors. It’s obvious that these data are vital for language learners who are to observe social norms and to accommodate to different situations they find themselves in. One more example of interdisciplinary overlap is the relation of linguistics to psychology.Psycholinguistics covers an extremely broad area, from acoustic phonetics to language pathology, and includes such problems as acquisition of language by children, memory, attention, speech perception, second-language acquisition and so on. Phonosemantics studies the relations between the sound structure of a word and its meaning. There is some data proving that the sounds that constitute a word have their own â€Å"inner† meaning, which causes certain associations in the listener’s mind. For example, close vowels produce the effect of â€Å"smallness†, and voiceless consonants sound more â€Å"unpleasant† and â€Å"rude† than their voiced counterparts, etc.Some sounds are associated with certain colours. These data may be helpful in teaching, for example, â€Å"tying† together the sound structure of a word and its meaning, thus facilitating the process of memorising new words. Scientists have always been interested how children acquire their own language without being taught. They hope that these data might be useful in teaching grown-up people a foreign language, too. Pragmalinguistics is a comparatively new science, which studies what linguistic means and ways of influence on a hearer to choose in order to bring about certain effects in the process of communication.Correspondently the domain of pragmaphonetics is to analyse the functioning and speech effects of the sound system of a language. Phonetics is closely connected with a number of other sciences such as physics (or rather acoustics), mathematics, biology, physiology and others. The more phonetics develops the more various branches of science become involved in the field of phonetic investigation. Phonetics has become important in a number of technological fields connected with communication.Phoneticians work alongside the communication engineers in devising and perfecting machines that can understand, that is respond to human speech, or machines for reading aloud the printed page and vice versa, converting speech directly into printed words on paper. Although scientists are still dissatisfied with the quality of synthesized speech, these data are applied in security systems, answering machines and for other technical purposes. 1. 4. Methods of Phonetic Investigation Methods applied in investigating the sound matter of the language have changed greatly with the development of technology and computer science.From the beginning of phonetics the phonetician has relied mainly on what he could feel of his own speech and on what h e could hear both of his own and the informant’s speech. Such methods are called direct and consist in observing the movements and positions of one's own or other people's organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as well as in analysing one's own kinaesthetic sensations (muscle tense) during the articulation of speech sounds and in comparing them with the resultant auditory impressions.Investigation by means of this method can be effective only if the persons employing it have been specially trained and have acquired considerable skills in associating the qualities of the perceived sound with the nature of the articulations producing it. Instrumental methods were introduced into phonetics in the last century to supplement the impressions deriving from the human senses. These methods are based upon registering or computing machines and technical devices, such as spectrograph, intonograph, x-ray photography and cinematography, laryngoscope and some others.The intr oduction of machines for measurements and for instrumental analysis into phonetics has resulted in their use for detailed study of many of the phenomena which are present in the sound wave or in the articulatory process at any given moment. These techniques can be very useful both for discovering in detail how English speakers produce their speech sounds, and for demonstrating to learners of English their pronunciation. Computers can provide additional pronunciation training, displaying useful information on the screen and being a powerful visual aid for effective phonetic practice.One more advantage of the modern experimental study of speech is the enormous amount of varied spoken speech data stored on computers. It facilitates the process of looking for cross-language differences and similarities. The data obtained from instrumental analysis supplement and verify those obtained by means of direct observation, thus making the research results more detailed and precise. II. THE ARTI CULATORY CHARACTERISTIC OF THE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS 2. 1. The Anatomo-mechanical Aspect of Sound Production Speech is impossible without the speech mechanism.So now our attention will be focused on the articulatory aspect of speech sounds. Speech sounds are acoustic effects of the articulatory movements and positions of the human speech organs. The immediate source of speech sounds is the human speech mechanism developed and perfected in the process of the historical development of man. The organs of speech are the object of linguistic investigation mainly from the point of view of the functions they perform in speech production. So before analysing the linguistic function of phonetic units we need to know how the speech mechanism acts in producing oral speech.According to their main sound-producing functions the speech organs can be roughly divided into the following four groups: the power mechanism (lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi), the vibrator mechanism (larynx, vocal cords , glottis), the resonator mechanism (nasal and mouth cavities) and the obstructer mechanism (tongue, lips, hard and soft palate, teeth). From the lungs through the wind-pipe the air-stream passes to the larynx, containing the vocal cords. The opening between the vocal cords, through which the air passes, is called the glottis. The linguistic function of the vocal cords onsists in providing the source of energy necessary for speech production. When the vocal cords are kept wide apart (i. e. the glottis is open) the air passes between the cords and the result is non-phonic breath. Then the vocal cords may be drawn together tightly, so that air cannot pass between them. The sudden opening of the glottis produces an explosion resembling a short cough; this sound is called the glottal stop. It often occurs in English when it reinforces or even replaces the sounds [p], [t], [k] or even when it precedes the energetic articulation of vowel sounds.The most important role of the vocal cords i s their participation in the production of voice. The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought loosely together, creating an obstacle to the air stream; when the air pressure becomes very strong the air forces its way between the vocal cords thus making the, vibrate. When, as is usual, these vibrations are regular, they produce vocal tone, or voice, whose pitch depends on the frequency of vibrations. We are able to vary the speed of vibration of our vocal cords and thus to change the pitch.Conscious variations of pitch are responsible for intonation. We are also able to modify the size of the puff of the air which escapes at each vibration, thus changing the amplitude of the vibration, which corresponds to the loudness of the sound heard by a listener. The air-stream, having passed through the vocal cords, is now subject to further modification, according to the shape of the pharynx, mouth and nasal cavities. The direction in which the air-stream will follow from the pharynx depends on the position of the soft palate.When it is lowered, the pharynx opens into the nasal cavity. When it is risen, the air-stream comes to the mouth cavity. As in the mouth cavity a lot of movable speech organs are situated it can easily change its shape, thus forming the majority of speech sounds. The movable (or active) speech organs, situated in the mouth cavity are: the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the lips and the lower jaw. Of all the movable organs within the mouth cavity the tongue is the most flexible and active.For convenience, the surface of the tongue or divided into several parts: the most flexible part of the tongue, which normally lies opposite the teeth ridge, is called the blade, the tip of the tongue being its extreme point. The part of the tongue next to the blade is called the front of the tongue. Then come the back and the root of the tongue. The tongue being the most active speech organ in the mouth cavity, the main principles of the majority of articulatory classifications of vowels are based on the movements and positions of the tongue. 2. 2. The system of English VowelsThe movements of the body of the tongue provide a convenient articulatory basis for classifying vowels according to two principles: 1) horizontal and 2) vertical movements of the tongue. According to the horizontal movement five classes of English vowels are distinguished. They are: 1) front [i:], [e], [e? ], [ ], [? ] 2) front-retracted [? ], [ ] 3) central [? ], [? :], [? ], [ ], [a? ], [a? ] 4) back [? ], [? :], [u:], [a:], [ ] 5) back-advanced [? ], [ ] Not all phoneticians single out the classes of front-retracted and back-advanced vowels. So both [i:] and [? vowels are classed as front, and both [u:] and [? ] – as back. The point is that the vowels in these two pairs differ in quality which is partially due to the raised part of the tongue. So in this case a more detailed classification seems to be a more precise one, since it adequately reflects the articulatory distinctions actually present in the language. Now let's view another articulatory characteristic of vowels, which is based on the vertical movement of the tongue. The way phoneticians of different schools approach this aspect is also slightly different.Some scholars distinguish three classes of vowels: high (or close), mid and low (or open) vowels. But to mark all significant changes in vowel quality it is not enough to single out these three groups of vowels. For instance, both English vowels [i:] and [? ] belong to the group of close vowels, but when the vowel [? ] is articulated the front of the tongue is not so high in the mouth as it is in the case of the vowel [i:]. Russian phoneticians made the classification more detailed distinguishing two subclasses in each class: broad and narrow variations of the 3 vertical positions of the tongue.Thus the following 6 groups of vowels are distinguished: 1) close a) narrow [i:], [u:] b) broad [? ], [? ], [ ], [ ] 2) mid a) narrow [e], [? :], [? ], [e? ], [ ] b) broad [? ], [? ] 3) open a) narrow [ ], [? :], [ ] b) broad [? ], [a? ], [a? ], [? ], [a:]. In addition to the above-mentioned principle of the classification of vowels phoneticians suggest five other criteria: 1) stability of articulation 2) lip position 3) character of the vowel end 4) length 5) tenseness The stability of articulation specifies the actual position of the articulating organ in the process of the articulation.There are two possible variants: a) the tongue position is stable, in this case the articulated vowel is pure, it consists of one element and is called a monophthong; and b) the tongue position changes, in this case a vowel consists of two elements, the first one is strong, it is a nucleus, the second element is very weak – it is a glide. There exists a third variety, when the change in the tongue position is fairly weak, in this case the articulated vowel is not pure, but it still consists of one element, such vowels are called diphthongoids.So according to this principle the English vowels are subdivided into: a) monophthongs [? ], [? ], [e], [? :], [? ], [? ], [? :], [? ], [? ], [a:] b) diphthongs [ ], [ ], [e? ], [ ], [ ], [a? ], [a? ], [ ] c) diphthongoids [i:], [u:] Some phoneticians, however, do not share this way of thinking and do not distinguish diphthongoids. But for the learners of English it is important to know this differentiation as it is useful for teaching purposes. Besides in modern English the tendency for diphthongization is becoming gradually stronger. Another feature of English vowels is lip rounding.Traditionally three lip positions are distinguished: spread, neutral and rounded. In English lip rounding is not relevant phonologically (it means that no two words can be distinguished on its basis). Our next point should be made about another characteristic of English vowels. It's checkness. The quality of all English monophthongs in the stressed pos ition is strongly affected by the following consonant. If a stressed vowel is followed by a strong (fortis) voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong and the vowel is called checked.If a vowel is followed by a weak (lenis) voiced consonant or by no consonant at all the end of it is weak. In this case the vowel is called free. Now it should be useful to consider another articulatory characteristic of English vowels, that is their length or quantity. The English monophthongs are traditionally divided into short [? ], [e], [? ], [? ], [? ], [? ], [? ] and long ones [i:], [a:], [? :], [? :], [u:]. It should be noted that vowel length or quantity has for a long time been the point of disagreement among phoneticians. The problem is whether variations in quantity are meaningful (relevant) or not.Let's look at the pairs of words: [b? d – bi:d], [s? t – si:t]. Are they distinguished from one another by the opposition of different lengt h (that's the approach of D. Jones, an outstanding British phonetician) or is the difference in quality (or in other words the position of the active organ of speech) decisive here? Most Russian phoneticians are in favour of the second conception. They state that a feature can be systemic if it does not depend on the context. As to the length of English vowels, it varies and depends on a lot of factors, the first being phonetic context.The shortest are vowels followed by voiceless consonants and the longest are in free position. For example in â€Å"meat† [i:] is half as long as the [i:] in â€Å"me†, but may approximately have the same duration as the [? ] in â€Å"mid†. But still these words â€Å"mid† and â€Å"meat† are perceived as different words because the vowels are different in quality. So no matter what time is required for the articulation of these vowels, the main distinctive feature is quality, not quantity. As for tenseness we shall only mention that special instrumental analysis shows that historically long vowels are tense, and historically short ones are lax.To sum it up we may conclude that among all the articulatory features of English vowels only two are relevant: the stability of articulation and tongue position. 2. 3. The System of English Consonants Before passing on to the classification of English consonants the difference between consonants and vowels should be considered. Acoustically consonants are noises, not musical tones like vowels. From the articulatory point of view the difference is due to the work of speech organs. In case of consonants various obstructions are made. As to the classification of English consonants there are few ways of seeing the situation.One of them is the classification according to the type of obstacle. On this ground two large classes of consonants are distinguished: 1) occlusive, which are produced when a complete obstruction is formed: [t, d, p, b, k, g], [m, n, ? ]; 2) constrictive, which are produced when an incomplete obstruction is formed: [s, z, f, v, O, ? , ? , ? , h], [w, r, l, j]. Each of the 2 classes is subdivided into noise consonants (these are those in the production of which noise prevails over tone) and sonorants (in the production of which tone component prevails).Noise occlusive consonants are called stops because the air stream is completely stopped at some point of articulation and then released with an explosion, that is why they are also called plosives: [t, d, p, b, k, g]. Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives, because the air escapes through the narrowing with friction: [s, z, f, v, O, ? , ? , ? , h]. Occlusive-constrictive consonants or affricates are noise consonants produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air stream escapes from the mouth with some friction. There are only two affricates in English: [? ,? . Other phoneticians suggest that the first and basic principle of clas sification should be the degree of noise. So consonants are divided first into noise consonants and sonorants and then each group is divided into smaller groups. Another very important principle is the place of articulation. According to this principle English consonants are classed into labial, lingual and glottal. I. Labial consonants in their turn are subdivided into a) bilabial (produced when both lips are active) [w, m, p, b]; b) labio-dental (articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth) [f, v]. II.Among the class of lingual consonants three subclasses are distinguished: a) forelingual; b) medio-lingual; c) back-lingual. Forelingual consonants are also of three kinds: 1) apical (articulated with the tip of the tongue) [t, d, s, z, O, ? , ? , ? , ? , ? , n, l]. 2) dorsal (produced when the blade of the tongue is active). There are no dorsal consonants in English. In Russian these are the sounds [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?]. 3) cacuminal (articulated with the t ip of the tongue curled back). There is only one cacuminal consonant in English – [r]. According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be: – interdental, rticulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth: [O, ? ]; – dental, produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth: the Russian [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?]; – alveolar, produced with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth ridge: [t, d, s, z, n, l]; – post-alveolar, articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge: [r]; – palato-alveolar, made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation (two foci): [? ? , ? , ? ]. b) mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate, so they are always palatal: [j]. c) backlingual consonants are also called velar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate: [k, g, ? ]. III. The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis. There are no glottal consonants in Russian. One more articulatory characteristic which should be mentioned is the position of the soft palate.According to this principle consonants may be oral and nasal. There are only three nasal consonants in English, which require the lowered position of the soft palate: [m, n, ]. The rest of the consonants are oral because in their production the soft palate is raised and the air escapes through the mouth. Our next point will be made in connection with another sound property, that is voice-voiceless characteristic. When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice and the consonants are voiced: [b, d, g, v, z, ? , ? , ? . When the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the consonants are voiceless: [p, t, k, f, s, O, ? , ? ]. It should be noted that the difference between such pairs as [p, b], [t, d] and so on is based not only on the absence or presence of the voice component, as voiced consonants are not fully voiced in all word positions, in word final position, for example, they are partially devoiced. There's also energy difference. All voiced consonants are weak or lenis and all voiceless consonants are strong or fortis.Summing it up, it should be mentioned that the most important articulatory features, which could serve as a criterion for grouping consonants into functionally similar classes, are: type of obstruction; place of articulation and the active organ of speech; force of articulation. The rest of the characteristics are considered to be irrelevant, as they are of no importance from the phonological point of view, but they provide necessary and useful information for teaching purposes. It is for this reason that they are normally included into the classification. III.THE ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY ASPECTS OF THE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS The auditory aspect of any sound is inseparable from its acoustic aspect and acoustic phonetics is closely connected with auditory phonetics and both may, therefore, be considered together. Objectively sound is a physical phenomenon, a kind of moving energy generated by some vibrating body. Subjectively sound is our perception of the vibrations of the air next to our ear-drum. People can perceive not all vibrations of the air but only when they occur at the rate of sixteen to twenty thousand times per second.Sounds may be periodical and non-periodical. If the vibrations of a physical body (vocal cords in our case) are rhythmical, the sound waves are periodical. The auditory impression of such periodical waves is a musical tone or a speech tone. If the wave is non-periodical, it is perceived as noise. Sound has a number of physical properties which all exist and manifest themselves simultaneously. They can be singled out from the others o nly for purposes of analysis. The first of these properties is frequency which is a number of vibrations per second.Our perception of the frequency is the pitch of the sound. The greater the frequency, the higher the pitch and vice versa. The frequency depends on certain physical properties of the vibrator, such as its mass, length and tension. The greater the mass of the vibrator, the slower its vibrations and the lower the pitch. The longer the vibrator, the slower the vibrations and the lower the frequency and the pitch. Here the difference between men and women and adults and children voices lies. Men's and adults' voices are lower than women's and children's are, because their vocal cords are thicker and longer.Tension depends on the elasticity of the vocal cords. The vocal cords of elderly people are not as elastic as the vocal cords of younger people, children especially, so their voices sound rather low. As the tension increases – the frequency increases and the pitch rises. The second physical property of sound is intensity, changes in which are perceived as variations in the loudness of sound. The intensity of sound is produced by the amplitude of vibrations (that is by the distance to which the air particles are displaced from their position of rest by the application of some external force).Intensity is measured in decibels. The intensity and frequency of sound are closely interdependent. The same amount of energy will produce either greater amplitude with a lower frequency or a higher frequency with smaller amplitude. Therefore if you increase the frequency without increasing the amount of energy you will shorten the amplitude and therefore reduce the intensity, that is produce a less loud sound. People are able to produce vowel sounds of various qualities or timbres. This is achieved through the action of the resonator mechanism.So the production and differentiation of vowels is based on the acoustic phenomenon that is called resonance. So unds coming from different resonators travel different lengths (distances) or have different carrying power. The distance is proportional to the volume of the resonator and the size of its orifice. Any sound has a certain duration or length. In other words it can exist and move only in time. The duration or length of a sound is the quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same patterns of vibration are maintained. For this reason, the duration of a sound is often referred to as is quantity.The duration is measured in millisecond. We perceive the variations in duration as tempo or speed of utterance. In speech there are not definite boundaries between different speech sounds. So it’s very difficult to measure the length of separate sounds. In addition it should be mentioned that along with various articulatory classifications of speech sounds, there exist acoustic descriptions and classifications. The chief drawback of articulatory classifications is that t hey don’t describe and define all shades of typologically identical speech sounds, especially vowels.Besides, one and the same speech sound can be pronounced by different people with slightly different positions and movements of their speech organs. Acoustic classifications seem to overcome these difficulties as they are more detailed and accurate. The first acoustic classification was based on spectrographic analysis. It was worked out by Roman Jakobson, C. G. M. Fant and M. Halle. However, acoustic classification, though more precise, are not practically applied in teaching. The acoustic features of speech sounds can not be seen directly or felt.But there are some other fields of the application of acoustic phonetics: speech synthesis, health service, security systems, etc. IV. THE FUNCTIONAL ASPECT OF SPEECH SOUNDS 4. 1 Phoneme and Allophones Phoneticians not only describe and classify the material form of phonetic units. They are also interested in the way in which sound phenomena function in a particular language and what part they play in communication. The branch of phonetics that studies the linguistic function of consonant and vowel sounds, syllabic structures, word accent and prosodic features is called phonology.Unlike phonetics itself, whose domain is articulatory and acoustic features, phono